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WIFA ROBOTICS / ACADEMY

Build your understanding.
Then build the robot.

Start with a real engineering problem. Work through the equation, try a practical procedure and learn how to check your result.

100Focused guides
4Learning paths
100Worked-example diagrams
PATH 01

Collaborative robots

Plan a cell, size its tools, teach accurate paths and validate the complete application.

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PATH 02

Image processing with robots

Turn pixels into reliable measurements, then connect perception to robot decisions.

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PATH 03

SCARA robots

Understand two-link geometry, build motion profiles and commission a small pick-and-place system.

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PATH 04

Design a robot

Work from measurable requirements through mechanics, electronics, control and validation.

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Start with Design a robot if you are building from scratch. Choose SCARA for hands-on kinematics, Robot vision for camera-guided work, or Collaborative robots for application planning. Examples are educational, not certified designs or claimed hardware test results. Read the learning and safety notes ↗

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100 guides · 4 paths

100 practical guides

Silver collaborative robot holding a machined cylinder between two fixed locating nests on a dark workbench.
Cobots / 01 · 2 min read

Choose a first cobot task with a cycle-time worksheet

Start with a repeatable transfer between two fixed locations, not a complete factory process. Break the task into movements, gripping, inspection and…

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Complete gripper, flange adapter and held metal workpiece resting together on an industrial weighing platform.
Cobots / 02 · 2 min read

Calculate cobot payload including the gripper and adapters

A robot lifts the complete assembly on its flange, not just the saleable part. A payload worksheet prevents a common selection mistake: spending nearly…

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Asymmetric robot tool assembly balanced on a narrow fulcrum, with a steel block held in its gripper.
Cobots / 03 · 2 min read

Find the center of gravity of a cobot tool

The same mass becomes harder to accelerate when it sits farther from the wrist. Locate the combined center of gravity before configuring a tool. Start…

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Collaborative robot extending across a bench toward a recessed fixture beside a vertical metal wall.
Cobots / 04 · 2 min read

Check cobot reach before placing the robot base

A target inside the nominal reach sphere may still be impossible with the required tool orientation. Use a quick distance calculation to reject obviously…

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Robot wrist supporting a long cantilever adapter with a gripper and steel block at its far end.
Cobots / 05 · 2 min read

Estimate wrist bending moment from an offset payload

A long gripper adapter can be more problematic than a heavier compact tool. Estimate the static moment to compare candidate designs, then use the robot’s…

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Parallel gripper holding a vertical silver cylinder between two opposing jaw pads above a containment tray.
Cobots / 06 · 2 min read

Size a two-finger gripper for a vertical lift

A part held by friction needs enough normal force to resist weight and acceleration. This simple model is useful for a two-jaw parallel gripper with equal…

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Bellows vacuum cup with a clear hose lifting an aluminum panel just above a shallow tray.
Cobots / 07 · 2 min read

Estimate vacuum cup holding force for pick-and-place

Vacuum holding force starts with pressure difference and effective sealed area. A large cup is not enough if the surface leaks or the vacuum collapses…

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Angled robot wrist with a long calibration stylus poised over a fixed conical reference pin.
Cobots / 08 · 2 min read

Understand tool-center-point offset errors

A TCP is the point the robot is asked to position. If its offset from the flange is wrong, changing wrist orientation moves the real tool tip away from…

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Robot touch probe approaching one of three spherical reference targets arranged on a rectangular fixture plate.
Cobots / 09 · 2 min read

Teach a fixture frame instead of reteaching every point

A work frame describes the fixture relative to the robot. Keeping part positions in that frame means a measured fixture relocation can update many points…

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Dial indicator on a magnetic stand touching a metal button held by a stationary robot gripper.
Cobots / 10 · 2 min read

Measure repeatability without confusing it with accuracy

A robot can return to the same wrong location very consistently. Repeatability describes scatter; accuracy describes closeness to the intended location. A…

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Robot-held cylindrical peg hovering above a bore in a machined fixture block.
Cobots / 11 · 2 min read

Build an error budget for a cobot insertion task

An insertion can fail even when every component seems accurate. Robot positioning, fixture location, vision and tool deflection all contribute. Combine…

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Robot holding a machined housing over a clamp fixture watched by an industrial inspection camera.
Cobots / 12 · 2 min read

Find the bottleneck in a cobot pick-and-place cycle

Making every movement faster is rarely the best first optimization. Instrument the sequence and find the operation that controls completion. For…

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Compact robot gripper transferring a small metal cube between two closely spaced tray pockets.
Cobots / 13 · 2 min read

Predict why short robot moves never reach top speed

For short distances, acceleration and deceleration consume the entire move. Raising the speed limit then has no effect. A triangular velocity model makes…

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Slim robot tool carrying a cylinder beside the rounded outside corner of an L-shaped metal fixture.
Cobots / 14 · 2 min read

Use corner blending without cutting into a fixture

Blending avoids a full stop at intermediate waypoints, but the tool no longer passes exactly through the corner. Use a geometric model to understand the…

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Robot gripper lowering a cylinder into one of a rectangular tray's regularly spaced circular pockets.
Cobots / 15 · 2 min read

Generate a rectangular tray pattern from one taught origin

A regular tray should not require a separate manually entered coordinate for every pocket. Use row and column offsets in a fixture frame, with explicit…

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Spring-loaded insertion tool aligning a silver peg with the beveled opening of a restrained metal block.
Cobots / 16 · 2 min read

Set up a force-limited insertion experiment in simulation

Position control alone can jam a slightly misaligned part. A simulated compliant insertion helps you understand how stiffness and position error create…

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Bench fixture testing a slender robot bracket with a force gauge above and displacement probe below its tip.
Cobots / 17 · 2 min read

Estimate compliance from a bench force-displacement test

Tool deflection can look like a calibration error because the robot reaches the command while the tip bends away. Measure effective stiffness on a…

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Collaborative robot carrying a small payload past a proximity sensor with clear bench space ahead.
Cobots / 18 · 2 min read

Understand response delay in a robot stopping model

A robot continues moving between an event and the beginning of deceleration. A simple delay-plus-braking model explains why latency matters. It is…

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Close view of a robot wrist and gripper carrying a dense steel cylinder against a softly blurred dark background.
Cobots / 19 · 2 min read

Why robot kinetic energy grows with speed squared

Reducing speed can reduce kinetic energy strongly, but energy alone does not tell you whether a contact is acceptable. Use this calculation to understand…

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Open industrial controller cabinet connected by an orange cable to the base of a collaborative robot.
Cobots / 20 · 2 min read

Design a robot–PLC handshake with a bounded timeout

A handoff needs agreement about the current job, not just a start pulse. Use an explicit sequence such as idle, request, accepted, running, done and…

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Photoelectric sensor and reflector positioned across a short conveyor with a metal part at the detection point.
Cobots / 21 · 2 min read

Debounce a part-present sensor without hiding faults

A bouncing sensor can create several apparent parts from one physical arrival. Require a stable input for a defined interval, then account for the delay…

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Parallel gripper holding a stepped metal block with a small optical sensor visible between its jaw bases.
Cobots / 22 · 2 min read

Confirm a gripped part with independent process evidence

A gripper-close command confirms a command, not a successful grasp. Compare jaw position, vacuum or a part sensor with expected ranges. Ambiguous evidence…

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Open robot gripper raised above a pickup nest containing a tilted cylinder, with an empty containment tray nearby.
Cobots / 23 · 2 min read

Add bounded retries to a cobot process

An automatic retry can turn a minor fault into a collision if the part state is unknown. Only retry operations that have a defined recovery pose and an…

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Robot gripper placing a finished cylinder into an orderly output tray beside a cup containing a chipped reject part.
Cobots / 24 · 2 min read

Measure useful output instead of nominal cobot speed

A fast demonstration can produce little useful output if the cell waits for material or rejects many parts. Separate availability, running speed and…

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Stationary robot gripper over a locating fixture beside a tray of varied test parts and a metal caliper.
Cobots / 25 · 2 min read

Plan a cobot pilot acceptance test with honest evidence

A successful short demo is not the same as a reliable process. Define acceptance criteria before the pilot and record failures by type. A zero-failure run…

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Inspection camera studying a fine notch and tiny hole in a precision metal part.
Robot vision / 01 · 2 min read

Choose camera resolution from the smallest robot feature

Choose resolution from the feature you must locate, not the largest megapixel number. Estimate how many pixels cover the smallest relevant detail across…

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Silver optical lens and sensor block framing a flat target across a dark optical bench.
Robot vision / 02 · 2 min read

Estimate lens focal length for a robot camera

A lens must frame the task at the available mounting distance. A pinhole approximation gives a starting focal length; real lens selection must also…

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Moving calibration tile frozen by a cyan strobe beneath an inspection camera.
Robot vision / 03 · 2 min read

Limit motion blur before training a detector

A fast detector cannot recover detail that exposure has smeared across the image. Estimate blur from object speed and exposure duration, then improve…

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Grazing inspection light revealing a fine scratch on a silver disk.
Robot vision / 04 · 2 min read

Measure lighting contrast for a robot inspection

Stable lighting often improves a simple algorithm more than a larger neural network. Compare object and background intensity without saturating either.…

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Cyan mechanical cap isolated visually from a silver cap on a dark tray.
Robot vision / 05 · 2 min read

Segment a colored part with an HSV mask

A color mask is a useful baseline when parts have a distinctive color and lighting is controlled. Convert the image into a representation that separates…

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Gear silhouette on a bright backlight with a matching physical aperture plate.
Robot vision / 06 · 2 min read

Choose a binary threshold using a saved-image test set

Thresholding separates bright and dark pixels with a decision boundary. It works well for stable silhouettes, but a threshold chosen on one image can fail…

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Fine tab on a machined metal part inspected beside a few loose specks.
Robot vision / 07 · 2 min read

Clean a robot vision mask without erasing small features

Morphological opening can remove isolated foreground noise; closing can fill small gaps. The kernel has a physical size once the image is calibrated.…

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Robot gripper hovering over the center of an asymmetrical mounting plate.
Robot vision / 08 · 2 min read

Find a part centroid from image moments

The centroid is a convenient first pick target for a solid, uniformly segmented part. Compute it from the mask or contour and then test whether that point…

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Gripper aligned to the long direction of a diagonal silver connecting rod.
Robot vision / 09 · 2 min read

Estimate an elongated part’s orientation with PCA

A long part has a dominant image direction that can guide a gripper angle. Principal-component analysis finds that direction from foreground pixels. It…

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Rigid overhead camera observing a gauge block and reference bar on a flat workplane.
Robot vision / 10 · 2 min read

Convert pixels to millimeters on a flat workplane

A local scale factor works when the camera view is close to orthographic over a small planar region. It is a useful bench exercise and a quick check of a…

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Rigid checkerboard target tilted on a ball-joint stand in front of a calibration camera.
Robot vision / 11 · 2 min read

Collect useful images for camera calibration

Calibration estimates how a camera maps geometry into pixels. Good image coverage matters more than collecting many nearly identical frames. Use a flat,…

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Convex lens bending the apparent edges of a straight metal frame.
Robot vision / 12 · 2 min read

Check radial distortion before using image-edge targets

A straight physical edge can appear curved through a lens. Calibration-based correction should reduce this systematic distortion, especially near the…

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Angled camera viewing a flat picking table with corner markers and a metal part.
Robot vision / 13 · 2 min read

Map image points to a robot table with a homography

A homography maps one plane to another image or coordinate plane. It is useful for a fixed camera looking at a flat picking surface. It does not recover…

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Wrist-mounted camera and gripper observing the same silver cube from different orientations.
Robot vision / 14 · 2 min read

Compose camera and robot coordinate transforms correctly

A detected 3D point is usually expressed in the camera frame, while a robot command needs another frame. Write transform direction explicitly. Most…

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Tilted robot wrist camera aimed at a rigid checkerboard calibration target.
Robot vision / 15 · 2 min read

Plan an eye-in-hand calibration dataset

A wrist-mounted camera changes pose with the robot. Hand–eye calibration relates the camera to the tool or gripper frame. Diverse rotations and accurately…

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Camera viewing a square geometric fiducial marker on a tilted metal workpiece.
Robot vision / 16 · 2 min read

Estimate object pose with a printed fiducial marker

A fiducial marker gives identifiable image corners with known geometry. With calibrated camera intrinsics and the correct physical marker size, pose…

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Twin-lens stereo camera observing textured cubes at two different depths.
Robot vision / 17 · 2 min read

Estimate depth from stereo disparity

Stereo cameras infer distance by comparing corresponding image locations. Depth becomes more sensitive to disparity error as objects move farther away.…

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Three separated part trays and silhouette plates representing distinct capture groups.
Robot vision / 18 · 2 min read

Prepare a robot vision dataset without leakage

A model can appear excellent when nearly identical frames occur in both training and evaluation. Split by capture session, part instance or production…

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Robot gripper selecting a cyan block among a washer and a partly shadowed pin.
Robot vision / 19 · 2 min read

Evaluate a robot detector with precision and recall

A robot may suffer differently from a false target and a missed target. Report both precision and recall so the decision threshold reflects those…

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Overlapping silver and cyan wire rectangles surrounding a metal workpiece.
Robot vision / 20 · 2 min read

Measure bounding-box overlap with intersection over union

Intersection over union compares a predicted bounding box with a reference. It is useful for defining detection matches, but it does not directly measure…

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Compact camera, processing module, and gripper forming a vision-guided picking station.
Robot vision / 21 · 2 min read

Budget end-to-end latency for vision-guided picking

Inference time is only one part of the delay between a real event and a robot response. Include exposure, transfer, preprocessing, inference, decision and…

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Robot gripper reaching for a moving cyan puck ahead of its faint previous-position ghost.
Robot vision / 22 · 2 min read

Compensate conveyor motion using capture timestamps

A coordinate measured from an old image describes where a part was, not where it is now. Constant-velocity prediction is a useful baseline when conveyor…

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Robot gripper following a cyan target on a rail with subtle scattered localization glints.
Robot vision / 23 · 2 min read

Filter a noisy vision target without ignoring lag

Smoothing reduces visible jitter but delays a moving signal. Use an exponential moving average as a simple baseline and evaluate both noise reduction and…

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Fine robot fingertips approaching a reference pin surrounded by subtle cyan localization scatter.
Robot vision / 24 · 2 min read

Propagate pixel uncertainty into robot position error

Camera localization uncertainty should be expressed in the units used by the robot. A simple local scale converts pixel scatter into millimeters; a…

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Gripper aligned over a seated cyan part beside a visibly misaligned graphite test part.
Robot vision / 25 · 2 min read

Build a vision-guided picking acceptance checklist

A perception pipeline is useful only when it creates valid, timely and executable robot targets. Test the complete chain with labeled scenarios, including…

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Slightly exploded SCARA arm showing shoulder, elbow, vertical quill, and tool rotation mechanisms.
SCARA / 01 · 2 min read

Understand the four axes of a SCARA robot

A common SCARA combines two horizontal rotary joints, a vertical axis and a tool-rotation axis. This arrangement suits planar transfer and insertion…

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Overhead SCARA with unequal link lengths positioned over an annular working platform and target.
SCARA / 02 · 2 min read

Choose SCARA link lengths from the required workspace

Two link lengths define an ideal annular planar workspace. Start with the required inner and outer radii, then leave room for joint limits, fixtures and…

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Bent SCARA arm with exposed rotary encoder discs positioning its quill over a violet reference target.
SCARA / 03 · 2 min read

Calculate SCARA forward kinematics by hand

Forward kinematics converts measured joint angles into the tool’s planar position. Derive this small model before debugging a controller: it gives an…

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SCARA reaching one target with a translucent alternate elbow configuration sharing its shoulder and endpoint.
SCARA / 04 · 2 min read

Solve two-link SCARA inverse kinematics

Inverse kinematics finds joint angles for a requested x-y target. A planar two-link arm often has two solutions. The calculation must reject unreachable…

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SCARA with a consistent bent elbow follows a curved violet groove beside a small fixture.
SCARA / 05 · 2 min read

Keep a continuous SCARA elbow branch along a path

Choosing an inverse-kinematics solution independently at every point can make the elbow flip. Track the previous joint state and select a nearby valid…

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Close SCARA view connecting small rotary joint changes with a tiny displacement at the tool.
SCARA / 06 · 2 min read

Build the planar SCARA Jacobian

The Jacobian connects small joint movements to small tool movements. It explains velocity limits, force transmission and singularities. Differentiate the…

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Fully extended SCARA with aligned shoulder and elbow links illustrates a singular configuration.
SCARA / 07 · 2 min read

Recognize SCARA singularities before commanding motion

At full extension or a folded alignment, the two-link arm loses an independent instantaneous motion direction. Inverse kinematics may still return a…

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Bent SCARA with different rotary-drive motion accents illustrates unequal joint speeds during tool travel.
SCARA / 08 · 2 min read

Convert a desired SCARA tool velocity into joint speeds

A modest Cartesian speed can require very different joint speeds at different poses. Solve the local Jacobian equation, then check the result against each…

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SCARA quill pressing sideways against a spring-loaded probe to illustrate joint torque from tool force.
SCARA / 09 · 2 min read

Estimate SCARA joint torque from a planar tool force

A tool force becomes joint torque through the robot geometry. The Jacobian transpose gives a useful static relationship. It excludes acceleration,…

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SCARA with visible joint stops above a partially accessible annular working surface.
SCARA / 10 · 2 min read

Apply joint limits to a SCARA workspace map

An ideal workspace annulus includes points that may be excluded by real joint stops. Sample the permitted joint ranges and map them through forward…

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SCARA shoulder cutaway showing a stepper motor, toothed transmission, and output encoder.
SCARA / 11 · 2 min read

Convert stepper pulses into SCARA joint angle

A stepper drive receives pulses, while the kinematic model uses angles. Keep the conversion explicit, including microstep setting and gear reduction.…

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Cutaway stepper-driven SCARA joint under a measurement probe emphasizes resolution and loaded position.
SCARA / 12 · 2 min read

Why microstepping is not the same as positioning accuracy

Microstepping increases commanded angular resolution and can improve smoothness. The actual shaft position also depends on load, torque ripple, friction…

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Open SCARA shoulder with a small motor pulley, larger output pulley, timing belt, and tensioner.
SCARA / 13 · 2 min read

Select a belt reduction for a SCARA joint

A belt reduction trades output speed for torque and nominal angular resolution. It also changes reflected inertia and mechanical behavior. Start with…

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Belt-driven SCARA joint under static load with a subtle endpoint deflection reference.
SCARA / 14 · 2 min read

Estimate how belt compliance affects SCARA endpoint error

A compliant transmission twists under load, causing position error even when the motor encoder reaches its target. A rotational stiffness model helps…

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SCARA homing flag and proximity sensor checked by an independent contact measurement probe.
SCARA / 15 · 2 min read

Measure SCARA homing repeatability

Homing establishes a reference after startup, but switch activation can vary with speed, mechanics and signal filtering. Measure the final reference…

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SCARA elbow gear train and displacement probe reveal lost motion during opposite-direction approaches.
SCARA / 16 · 2 min read

Measure backlash by approaching a SCARA target from both sides

Lost motion after reversing direction can make a robot accurate from one approach and wrong from another. Compare opposing approaches at the same target…

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Cutaway SCARA vertical axis showing a lead screw, traveling nut, guide rails, and tool quill.
SCARA / 17 · 2 min read

Convert lead-screw rotation into SCARA vertical travel

The vertical axis converts motor rotation into linear movement. Use screw lead, not thread pitch, when multiple starts are present. An incorrect…

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SCARA screw-driven vertical carriage holding a cylindrical test load supported by a cradle.
SCARA / 18 · 2 min read

Estimate SCARA vertical-axis lifting torque

A screw-driven lift requires torque to raise its load and accelerate it. Include the complete moving assembly, then account for screw efficiency and…

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SCARA wrist keeps a rectangular connector aligned across two arm poses.
SCARA / 19 · 2 min read

Keep SCARA tool yaw constant while the arm moves

If the tool must keep a label or connector aligned, the wrist has to compensate for shoulder and elbow rotation. Compute orientation from the complete…

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SCARA transfer between two nests with a violet motion trail suggesting acceleration, cruise, and deceleration.
SCARA / 20 · 2 min read

Design a trapezoidal velocity profile for a SCARA axis

A trapezoidal profile accelerates, cruises and decelerates. It is easy to calculate and useful as a baseline, although a real controller may smooth…

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SCARA elbow sweep with soft motion echoes and a smooth violet tool trace.
SCARA / 21 · 2 min read

Use cubic time scaling for a smooth SCARA demonstration

A cubic time law makes joint velocity start and end at zero. It is useful for simulation and low-level understanding of trajectory generation. It does not…

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Bent two-link SCARA places its vertical quill at the midpoint of a straight violet path.
SCARA / 22 · 2 min read

Make a SCARA tool follow a straight Cartesian line

Interpolating joint angles does not generally make the tool move in a straight line. Define the line in Cartesian coordinates, solve inverse kinematics…

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SCARA tracing a circular groove with a visible short chord and small geometric gap.
SCARA / 23 · 2 min read

Generate a SCARA circular path with chord-error control

A circle approximated by line segments deviates between sample points. Choose sampling from permitted geometric error, then check kinematics and timing.…

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SCARA with three spaced reference spheres and an independent optical measurement head for calibration.
SCARA / 24 · 2 min read

Calibrate SCARA link lengths using independent reference points

Nominal CAD dimensions may differ from effective joint-to-joint lengths. Calibration should use multiple configurations so link-length errors can be…

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Compact guarded SCARA pen plotter with a compliant pen holder drawing a simple violet arc.
SCARA / 25 · 2 min read

Commission a SCARA pen-plotter prototype in stages

A pen plotter is a useful low-force demonstration of geometry, but the moving arm still presents hazards. Separate offline kinematic verification,…

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A compact gripper test stand above a tray of aluminum cylinders, with a caliper beside the work area.
Robot design / 01 · 2 min read

Write measurable requirements before designing a robot

A useful robot specification describes a task in measurable terms: what moves, how far, how accurately and under which conditions. Begin with the required…

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A two-link SCARA mechanism with a vertical tool slide above a rectangular fixture.
Robot design / 02 · 2 min read

Choose robot degrees of freedom from the task

Every added axis increases mechanical, sensing and control work. Identify the independent position and orientation variables the task truly needs. A…

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A supported horizontal robot arm link and end mass extending from a large shoulder joint.
Robot design / 03 · 2 min read

Estimate gravity torque for a robot shoulder joint

For a vertical-plane arm, the shoulder must support both the payload and the arm itself. Use perpendicular lever arms in the demanding pose, then add…

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A long robot link with a large pivot hub and a compact mass attached at the far end.
Robot design / 04 · 2 min read

Calculate link inertia before choosing acceleration

Mass location matters as much as total mass when a joint accelerates. A long light link can require substantial torque, and a small payload at the tip can…

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A finned servo motor connected to a load brake with a temperature probe on its casing.
Robot design / 05 · 2 min read

Check motor heating with RMS torque over a duty cycle

A motor may tolerate a brief high torque but overheat during sustained operation. An RMS torque calculation is a useful thermal screening tool when torque…

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A cutaway planetary gearbox connecting a servo motor to a large dark flywheel.
Robot design / 06 · 2 min read

Use gear reduction to understand reflected load inertia

A reduction changes the inertia seen by the motor as well as torque and speed. A simple reflected-inertia calculation helps explain actuator behavior, but…

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A clamped aluminum link with a hanging end mass and a displacement probe beneath its tip.
Robot design / 07 · 2 min read

Estimate robot-link bending before adding a larger motor

If a link bends, a stronger actuator may increase force without improving tool accuracy. A cantilever approximation gives an early estimate of stiffness…

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A solid steel shaft supported in bearing blocks, with a keyed coupling and torque-loading arm.
Robot design / 08 · 2 min read

Screen a solid robot shaft for torsional stress

A shaft must transmit torque without excessive stress or twist. A simple circular-shaft formula is useful for comparing diameters, but shoulders, keyways…

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A compact mobile robot chassis showing a rubber drive wheel, gearmotor and ballast block.
Robot design / 09 · 2 min read

Estimate wheel torque for a small mobile robot

A wheeled prototype needs enough traction and motor torque to accelerate its mass against resistance. Begin with a level-floor force budget, then extend…

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A rotary robot joint with a slotted encoder disc and optical read head beside its output link.
Robot design / 10 · 2 min read

Choose encoder resolution from joint-position sensitivity

Encoder resolution defines the smallest reported angle increment, not the complete positioning accuracy. Convert counts into angular and endpoint…

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A low-voltage power module, protected distribution block and compact motor controller connected by tidy cables.
Robot design / 11 · 2 min read

Create a low-voltage robot power budget

A power budget separates steady loads from startup and acceleration peaks. Add controllers, sensors, fans and conversion losses instead of sizing the…

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A looped robot power cable connecting a low-voltage source to a motor, with probes at the load connector.
Robot design / 12 · 2 min read

Calculate voltage drop in a robot power cable

A long or thin supply path can cause resets when motors draw current. Estimate the complete round-trip resistance, then measure voltage at the load during…

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An open robot controller enclosure containing a heat sink, cooling fan and temperature probe.
Robot design / 13 · 2 min read

Estimate electronics temperature rise before enclosing a robot controller

A controller that runs cool on an open bench can overheat in an enclosure. A first-order thermal resistance model links power loss to temperature rise. It…

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A small sensor interface board with two resistors, a cylindrical analog sensor and insulated test leads.
Robot design / 14 · 2 min read

Scale a low-voltage analog sensor with a resistor divider

A resistor divider can scale a known low-voltage analog signal into an ADC range. It does not provide isolation, overvoltage protection or compatibility…

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A load cell supporting a cylindrical reference mass beside an ADC board and a second calibration mass.
Robot design / 15 · 2 min read

Convert ADC codes into physical sensor units

Raw ADC numbers become useful only after you define reference voltage, sensor transfer function and calibration. Use a clear ideal conversion for…

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A rotary encoder disc and optical pickup on a motor shaft, connected to an acquisition board.
Robot design / 16 · 2 min read

Estimate joint speed from encoder counts

Speed estimation turns count changes over time into angular velocity. Short windows react quickly but amplify quantization; longer windows smooth the…

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A short linear stage connected to a controller board and timing probe cable.
Robot design / 17 · 2 min read

Choose a control sampling rate with delay in mind

A controller needs a sampling period appropriate to the dynamics it is trying to regulate. Nyquist is a signal-reconstruction boundary, not a complete…

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A lead-screw actuator teaching rig with a carriage, end stops and a small controller.
Robot design / 18 · 2 min read

Understand proportional control with a bounded actuator

Proportional control commands effort in proportion to error. Increasing gain increases response, but physical actuator limits and plant dynamics prevent…

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A rotary servo lever near a mechanical travel stop, with a compact controller beside it.
Robot design / 19 · 2 min read

Prevent integral windup in a simulated robot controller

Integral action can remove steady error, but it can keep accumulating when the actuator is saturated. When the target changes, that stored integral may…

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A compact gripper and linear shuttle carrying a metal workpiece toward an optical inspection gate.
Robot design / 20 · 2 min read

Design a robot process as explicit states

A collection of independent if statements can accidentally allow incompatible actions. A state machine makes allowed transitions visible and provides a…

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Two embedded-controller boards on stands, with a shielded serial cable attached at one end and unplugged at the other.
Robot design / 21 · 2 min read

Frame robot serial messages so corrupted data is rejected

A byte stream has no inherent message boundaries. A robust parser needs a bounded length, clear framing, integrity check and timeout. Test it on stored…

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A microcontroller board and watchdog module with a lime status light and an unplugged actuator socket.
Robot design / 22 · 2 min read

Use a watchdog to detect a stalled robot application

A watchdog can detect missing progress, but only if the signal being monitored represents meaningful healthy work. A timer interrupt that keeps toggling…

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An open robot link exposing an internal mass above a test cradle, with a reference weight nearby.
Robot design / 23 · 2 min read

Give a robot simulation physically meaningful mass and inertia

A robot model can look correct while behaving unrealistically because mass or inertia is missing or invalid. Begin with simple link shapes and verify…

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A 3D-printed bracket, silver bearing and calibration coupon beside a measuring caliper.
Robot design / 24 · 2 min read

Budget assembly tolerances before printing robot parts

A prototype can fail because several small dimensional deviations add in the same direction. Trace the dimension chain that controls the fit. Do not…

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A robot end-effector in an inspection fixture with a contact probe, reference artifact and data-acquisition box.
Robot design / 25 · 2 min read

Build a robot verification matrix and release checklist

A robot is not finished when it moves once. Connect each requirement to evidence, configuration and a pass/fail decision. Separate functional…

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